1. Describe the results of Werner’s Kauai study in terms of how children who encountered prenatal or birth challenges fared in different environments. What are the implications of these results for the nature‒nurture question? ANSWER: Werner found that children who experienced prenatal or birth challenges were more likely to develop difficulties. However, the development of these difficulties as well as the degree of the difficulties was dependent on the child’s home environment. Specific environmental influences included parents’ income, education, mental health, and parental relationships. For instance, by the age of 2 years, toddlers who lived in middle-income families did not experience complications associated with prenatal or birth challenges. Also, by 10 years of age, prenatal and birth challenges were related to psychological problems if the child was growing up in poor conditions. Those who experienced prenatal and birth challenges along with environmental challenges were more likely to develop serious learning and behavior problems by 10 years of age and by the age of 18 had already been arrested, experienced mental health problems, or even become a parent. However, roughly 33% of those who experienced prenatal or birth challenges and environmental challenges showed signs of resilience. The results of Werner’s work lend support for the implication of nature and nurture interaction to produce developmental outcomes. Nature and nurture work together to shape development. To assume that one is more important than the other, or even that the two are of equal importance, oversimplifies the developmental process and does not accurately reflect the bidirectional interaction of the two on development.
2. The text describes several reasons for the importance of studying child development. Why is studying child development of interest or importance to you personally? ANSWER: Answers will vary but should discuss the relevance of studying child development to one or more of the following: (1) raising children, (2) developing and choosing social policies, and (3) developing an understanding of human nature.
3. Many decisions concerning social policy issues that impact children, like the question of whether playing violent video games leads to increased aggressive behavior, are frequently informed by research. According to Ferguson (2015) and his use of a meta-analysis technique, what guidance can policymakers offer to parents based on research findings? ANSWER: Even though the issue of playing violent video games and childhood and adolescent aggression has been contested by politicians, advocacy groups, and researchers for a considerable amount of time, more recent research (Ferguson, 2015) indicates a minimal effect of playing violent video games and childhood and adolescent aggression. However, a minimal effect is not the same as a nonexistent relationship between the two. Considering this, advice regarding this issue to parents may be to monitor what their children are playing, to engage and play the game with their child, or to limit unmonitored exposure. Also, recent meta-analysis results indicate that playing violent video games is not a major cause of aggression. This means that other factors are at play.
4. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Romanian Adoption Study examined the long-term development of orphans living in adverse conditions. Describe the key findings regarding the impact of the timing of early experiences on the development of these orphans in Romania. ANSWER: The studies highlighted that the timing of early experiences significantly influenced their long-term effects. Romanian-born children displayed flexibility in overcoming the effects of early deprivation when adopted before six months, while those institutionalized for longer periods faced greater challenges in fully overcoming the impact of early deprivation, even in loving and stimulating environments. Adoptive families played a crucial role in improving the children’s lives, but the age of adoption was directly linked to the extent of long-term harm caused by early deprivation.
5. Choose two of the following philosophers: Aristotle, Locke, Plato, Rousseau. Describe one similarity and one difference between the two. ANSWER: Answers will vary based on the two philosophers chosen. However, some common similarities and differences among them are as follows. Both Plato and Aristotle were Greek philosophers who lived in the fourth-century B.C. and were interested in how children’s development was influenced by their nature and the nurture they received. Also, both Plato and Aristotle believed that the long-term welfare of society was dependent on the proper raising of children. Plato viewed the raising of boys as a difficult challenge for caregivers. Plato viewed self-control and discipline as the major goal of education. Aristotle, on the other hand, was concerned with fitting child rearing to the needs of each child. Additionally, Plato believed that children have innate knowledge, while Aristotle believed that all knowledge comes from experience and that the infant mind is blank. Like Aristotle, Locke, an English philosopher, viewed the child as a blank slate, or tabula rasa. Locke believed that the most important goal of child rearing is the growth of character. Locke believed that parents need to set good examples for children and to avoid indulging children early in life. He also believed that once discipline and reason were instilled in the child that authority over the child should be lessened. Rousseau, a French philosopher, believed that parents and society should give children complete freedom from the beginning.
6. What do developmental psychologists mean when they say that children play an active role in their own development? Provide a detailed example of this concept. ANSWER: Children play an active role in their own development in terms of attention, language use, and play behaviors. Children first begin to shape their own development through their selection of what they attend to. This is evident, for example, in a newborn’s preference for attending to things that move and make noise, which helps them learn about their world, as well as their own mother’s face, which leads to social interaction and strengthening of the mother–infant bond. Once children learn to talk, they often talk to themselves when left alone, which may help improve speech. Also, through play, children not only learn about their environment but find a way in which to entertain themselves. Children’s contributions to their own development strengthen and broaden as they grow older and become increasingly able to choose and shape their environments.
7. Explain what effortful attention is and describe its components. What has been associated with difficulty in exerting effortful attention? ANSWER: Effortful attention involves voluntary control of one’s own emotions and thoughts, including impulse control, the control of emotions, and focusing one’s attention. Difficulty in exerting effortful attention has been associated with behavioral problems, mental illness, and poor academic skills.
8. Explain how changes in sociocultural factors are demonstrated with childcare outside of the home in the United States. ANSWER: General characteristics of society are able to influence development but also reflect views of development. For instance, today many children in the United States attend or will attend childcare outside of their home. This recent change reflects changes in the broader sociocultural context of development. This change demonstrates the historical era, economic structure, and cultural beliefs and values. Fifty years ago, very few children attended childcare outside of their home. Instead, most were cared for by their stay-at-home mother while their father was the primary breadwinner. However, today there are more opportunities for women who have young children to work outside the home. This may even be a necessity for many households, considering the current economic conditions. Furthermore, the current culture holds that mothers should be able to work outside of the home if they wish to do so. With this change comes the belief that experiencing childcare outside of the home is not detrimental or otherwise harmful to children.
9. Based on the findings from Werner’s study, outline the three characteristics of children who demonstrate resilience. ANSWER: Resilient children have three main characteristics. They are likely to have positive personal qualities, such as high intelligence or an optimistic outlook on life. They are also likely to have a close relationship with at least one parent. They are also likely to have a close relationship with at least one adult other than their parents, such as a grandparent or teacher.
10. Explain why low socioeconomic status and poverty put children at a cumulative risk in terms of developmental outcomes. ANSWER: Children from impoverished families tend to fare worse than children raised in more affluent families. This is not surprising due to the way in which poverty can become a cumulative risk factor for developing children. For instance, children living in poverty are more likely to live in dangerous neighborhoods, to attend inferior childcare centers and schools, and to be exposed to increased levels of pollution. Their parents also often read to them less, provide fewer books in the home, and are less involved in their education. They are also more likely to grow up in single-parent homes or to be raised by neither biological parent. All of these disadvantages combine to put children at cumulative risk in terms of developmental outcomes.
11. Dipti and Amaya are sisters. Amaya has a lot of friends and is well liked by her peers. Dipti, in contrast, has few friends and is constantly the target of her peers’ teasing. Using the four factors Scarr identified as involved in differences among siblings, describe why these sisters might be so different when it comes to their peer relations. For each of the four factors, provide a specific example. ANSWER: Scarr identified four factors that can lead children from the same family to turn out different from each other, as is the case for Dipti and Amaya. These include (1) genetic differences, (2) differences in treatment by parents and others, (3) differences in reactions to similar experiences, and (4) differences in choices of environments. For Dipti and Amaya, any one of these can result in stark differences between them. Perhaps their genetic makeup, even though they have the same biological parents, is drastically different. It could be that Amaya was born with a more outgoing personality than Dipti, which could explain being well liked and having many friends. Perhaps they were treated differently by their parents. Maybe Amaya was favored as a small child or given extra attention by one or both of her parents. Also, each sister may react differently to similar situations. Dipti may interpret events more negatively than Amaya. Perhaps Dipti is not actually teased by her peers, but she interprets their comments as such. Finally, each sister may have specific preferences for how they like to spend their time, which could involve social activities where friendships are formed.
12. In regards to research, replicability refers to the degree to which following studies using the same procedures yield the same results as the original study. Unfortunately, many studies fail to deliver replicability, recently called the “replicability crisis.” Describe the efforts to address this crisis. ANSWER: The replicability crisis in scientific research is attributed to various factors, prompting efforts to enhance replicability in future studies. One key approach involves advocating for larger participant samples in experiments to ensure more consistent replicability. Additionally, scientific journals are promoting preregistration, where researchers submit their planned methods and statistical analyses before conducting a study. This shift allows journal reviewers to assess studies based on methodological rigor rather than the outcomes. To tackle issues where subsequent studies fail to replicate the original methods or settings, the collaboration between original and new investigators is encouraged to maintain all procedure details.
13. A researcher is interested in the impact of a new type of training diaper on the age at which toddlers become potty trained. The researcher plans to split a group of 100 toddlers into two groups—in one group, members will wear the new training diapers until they are potty trained, and in the other, members will wear their usual diapers. Answer these questions about this study: (1) What is the researcher’s hypothesis? (2) How should the researcher split the 100 toddlers into two groups? (3) Which group is the experimental group, and which is the control group? (4) What is the independent variable? (5) What is the dependent variable? (6) What results will the researcher need to make a conclusion about the effectiveness of the new training diaper? (7) Will the researcher be able to conclude that there is a cause-and-effect association? Why or why not? ANSWER: The hypothesis in this study would be that those toddlers who use the new type of training diaper will potty train faster than those using their usual diapers. For the purposes of this study, the researcher should evenly divide the 100 participants between the two groups, randomly assigning participants to each group. In this design, the control group is the group of toddlers who are using their usual diapers and the experimental group is the group of toddlers who are using the new type of training diaper. The independent variable is the training diaper used and the dependent variable is the speed of potty training. In order for the hypothesis to be supported by the data collected, the researcher will need to compare the average time it takes to potty train each group of children. If the experimental group, on average, potty trained at a faster rate than did the control group, then the researcher can say that results support the hypothesis of the study. If this is the case, the researcher can say that the new type of training diaper is effective in potty training but cannot say that it causes faster potty training. There are other confounding variables that could help the toddler potty train faster, such as parent reactions, rewards, and so on.
14. Explain the third-variable problem in the context of correlational research and provide an example to illustrate how it can affect the interpretation of research findings. Additionally, emphasize the importance of recognizing that correlation does not imply causation in research interpretation, even in prestigious research journals. ANSWER: The third-variable problem in correlational research refers to the situation where the observed correlation between two variables may not be a direct cause-and-effect relationship, but could be influenced by a third, unaccounted-for variable. For example, in the context of children’s reading achievement and reading time, the correlation between these two factors could be influenced by a third variable, such as the family’s value for reading. In this case, children who grow up in families that highly value reading may spend more time reading and achieve greater reading proficiency. This emphasizes the importance of understanding that correlation does not imply causation when interpreting research findings. Even in prestigious research journals, findings should be analyzed with caution, as the correlation between two variables does not necessarily mean one causes the other. Researchers must consider the potential influence of third variables and other confounding factors to draw accurate conclusions from their studies.
15. Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of each of these research designs: (a) cross-sectional, (b) longitudinal, and (c) microgenetic. ANSWER: Cross-sectional: One advantage of this design is that it is quick and easy to administer. A disadvantage is that it is uninformative about the stability of individual differences over time. Longitudinal: One advantage of this design is that it reveals individual children’s patterns of change over long periods of time. A disadvantage is that it is difficult to keep all participants in the study. Microgenetic: One advantage of this design is that it reveals individual change patterns over short periods of time in detail. A disadvantage of this design is that it does not yield data regarding change patterns over long periods of time.
16. According to The Society for Research on Child Development, describe what ethical issues researchers must consider when they are conducting research with children. ANSWER: The Society for Research on Child Development has developed a code of ethics for researchers to follow when it comes to conducting research with children. These include being sure that the research maximizes the benefits and minimizes the harm to children, obtaining informed consent prior to collecting data, preserving participants’ anonymity, discussing with caregivers any information from the research that may be important for the welfare of the child, trying to avoid any negative consequences of participating in the research, and debriefing the children once the research is over.
Essay
1. Describe the results of Werner’s Kauai study in terms of how children who encountered prenatal or birth challenges fared in different environments. What are the implications of these results for the nature‒nurture question? ANSWER: Werner found that children who experienced prenatal or birth challenges were more likely to develop difficulties. However, the development of these difficulties as well as the degree of the difficulties was dependent on the child’s home environment. Specific environmental influences included parents’ income, education, mental health, and parental relationships. For instance, by the age of 2 years, toddlers who lived in middle-income families did not experience complications associated with prenatal or birth challenges. Also, by 10 years of age, prenatal and birth challenges were related to psychological problems if the child was growing up in poor conditions. Those who experienced prenatal and birth challenges along with environmental challenges were more likely to develop serious learning and behavior problems by 10 years of age and by the age of 18 had already been arrested, experienced mental health problems, or even become a parent. However, roughly 33% of those who experienced prenatal or birth challenges and environmental challenges showed signs of resilience. The results of Werner’s work lend support for the implication of nature and nurture interaction to produce developmental outcomes. Nature and nurture work together to shape development. To assume that one is more important than the other, or even that the two are of equal importance, oversimplifies the developmental process and does not accurately reflect the bidirectional interaction of the two on development.
2. The text describes several reasons for the importance of studying child development. Why is studying child development of interest or importance to you personally? ANSWER: Answers will vary but should discuss the relevance of studying child development to one or more of the following: (1) raising children, (2) developing and choosing social policies, and (3) developing an understanding of human nature.
3. Many decisions concerning social policy issues that impact children, like the question of whether playing violent video games leads to increased aggressive behavior, are frequently informed by research. According to Ferguson (2015) and his use of a meta-analysis technique, what guidance can policymakers offer to parents based on research findings? ANSWER: Even though the issue of playing violent video games and childhood and adolescent aggression has been contested by politicians, advocacy groups, and researchers for a considerable amount of time, more recent research (Ferguson, 2015) indicates a minimal effect of playing violent video games and childhood and adolescent aggression. However, a minimal effect is not the same as a nonexistent relationship between the two. Considering this, advice regarding this issue to parents may be to monitor what their children are playing, to engage and play the game with their child, or to limit unmonitored exposure. Also, recent meta-analysis results indicate that playing violent video games is not a major cause of aggression. This means that other factors are at play.
4. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Romanian Adoption Study examined the long-term development of orphans living in adverse conditions. Describe the key findings regarding the impact of the timing of early experiences on the development of these orphans in Romania. ANSWER: The studies highlighted that the timing of early experiences significantly influenced their long-term effects. Romanian-born children displayed flexibility in overcoming the effects of early deprivation when adopted before six months, while those institutionalized for longer periods faced greater challenges in fully overcoming the impact of early deprivation, even in loving and stimulating environments. Adoptive families played a crucial role in improving the children’s lives, but the age of adoption was directly linked to the extent of long-term harm caused by early deprivation.
5. Choose two of the following philosophers: Aristotle, Locke, Plato, Rousseau. Describe one similarity and one difference between the two. ANSWER: Answers will vary based on the two philosophers chosen. However, some common similarities and differences among them are as follows. Both Plato and Aristotle were Greek philosophers who lived in the fourth-century B.C. and were interested in how children’s development was influenced by their nature and the nurture they received. Also, both Plato and Aristotle believed that the long-term welfare of society was dependent on the proper raising of children. Plato viewed the raising of boys as a difficult challenge for caregivers. Plato viewed self-control and discipline as the major goal of education. Aristotle, on the other hand, was concerned with fitting child rearing to the needs of each child. Additionally, Plato believed that children have innate knowledge, while Aristotle believed that all knowledge comes from experience and that the infant mind is blank. Like Aristotle, Locke, an English philosopher, viewed the child as a blank slate, or tabula rasa. Locke believed that the most important goal of child rearing is the growth of character. Locke believed that parents need to set good examples for children and to avoid indulging children early in life. He also believed that once discipline and reason were instilled in the child that authority over the child should be lessened. Rousseau, a French philosopher, believed that parents and society should give children complete freedom from the beginning.
6. What do developmental psychologists mean when they say that children play an active role in their own development? Provide a detailed example of this concept. ANSWER: Children play an active role in their own development in terms of attention, language use, and play behaviors. Children first begin to shape their own development through their selection of what they attend to. This is evident, for example, in a newborn’s preference for attending to things that move and make noise, which helps them learn about their world, as well as their own mother’s face, which leads to social interaction and strengthening of the mother–infant bond. Once children learn to talk, they often talk to themselves when left alone, which may help improve speech. Also, through play, children not only learn about their environment but find a way in which to entertain themselves. Children’s contributions to their own development strengthen and broaden as they grow older and become increasingly able to choose and shape their environments.
7. Explain what effortful attention is and describe its components. What has been associated with difficulty in exerting effortful attention? ANSWER: Effortful attention involves voluntary control of one’s own emotions and thoughts, including impulse control, the control of emotions, and focusing one’s attention. Difficulty in exerting effortful attention has been associated with behavioral problems, mental illness, and poor academic skills.
8. Explain how changes in sociocultural factors are demonstrated with childcare outside of the home in the United States. ANSWER: General characteristics of society are able to influence development but also reflect views of development. For instance, today many children in the United States attend or will attend childcare outside of their home. This recent change reflects changes in the broader sociocultural context of development. This change demonstrates the historical era, economic structure, and cultural beliefs and values. Fifty years ago, very few children attended childcare outside of their home. Instead, most were cared for by their stay-at-home mother while their father was the primary breadwinner. However, today there are more opportunities for women who have young children to work outside the home. This may even be a necessity for many households, considering the current economic conditions. Furthermore, the current culture holds that mothers should be able to work outside of the home if they wish to do so. With this change comes the belief that experiencing childcare outside of the home is not detrimental or otherwise harmful to children.
9. Based on the findings from Werner’s study, outline the three characteristics of children who demonstrate resilience. ANSWER: Resilient children have three main characteristics. They are likely to have positive personal qualities, such as high intelligence or an optimistic outlook on life. They are also likely to have a close relationship with at least one parent. They are also likely to have a close relationship with at least one adult other than their parents, such as a grandparent or teacher.
10. Explain why low socioeconomic status and poverty put children at a cumulative risk in terms of developmental outcomes. ANSWER: Children from impoverished families tend to fare worse than children raised in more affluent families. This is not surprising due to the way in which poverty can become a cumulative risk factor for developing children. For instance, children living in poverty are more likely to live in dangerous neighborhoods, to attend inferior childcare centers and schools, and to be exposed to increased levels of pollution. Their parents also often read to them less, provide fewer books in the home, and are less involved in their education. They are also more likely to grow up in single-parent homes or to be raised by neither biological parent. All of these disadvantages combine to put children at cumulative risk in terms of developmental outcomes.
11. Dipti and Amaya are sisters. Amaya has a lot of friends and is well liked by her peers. Dipti, in contrast, has few friends and is constantly the target of her peers’ teasing. Using the four factors Scarr identified as involved in differences among siblings, describe why these sisters might be so different when it comes to their peer relations. For each of the four factors, provide a specific example. ANSWER: Scarr identified four factors that can lead children from the same family to turn out different from each other, as is the case for Dipti and Amaya. These include (1) genetic differences, (2) differences in treatment by parents and others, (3) differences in reactions to similar experiences, and (4) differences in choices of environments. For Dipti and Amaya, any one of these can result in stark differences between them. Perhaps their genetic makeup, even though they have the same biological parents, is drastically different. It could be that Amaya was born with a more outgoing personality than Dipti, which could explain being well liked and having many friends. Perhaps they were treated differently by their parents. Maybe Amaya was favored as a small child or given extra attention by one or both of her parents. Also, each sister may react differently to similar situations. Dipti may interpret events more negatively than Amaya. Perhaps Dipti is not actually teased by her peers, but she interprets their comments as such. Finally, each sister may have specific preferences for how they like to spend their time, which could involve social activities where friendships are formed.
12. In regards to research, replicability refers to the degree to which following studies using the same procedures yield the same results as the original study. Unfortunately, many studies fail to deliver replicability, recently called the “replicability crisis.” Describe the efforts to address this crisis. ANSWER: The replicability crisis in scientific research is attributed to various factors, prompting efforts to enhance replicability in future studies. One key approach involves advocating for larger participant samples in experiments to ensure more consistent replicability. Additionally, scientific journals are promoting preregistration, where researchers submit their planned methods and statistical analyses before conducting a study. This shift allows journal reviewers to assess studies based on methodological rigor rather than the outcomes. To tackle issues where subsequent studies fail to replicate the original methods or settings, the collaboration between original and new investigators is encouraged to maintain all procedure details.
13. A researcher is interested in the impact of a new type of training diaper on the age at which toddlers become potty trained. The researcher plans to split a group of 100 toddlers into two groups—in one group, members will wear the new training diapers until they are potty trained, and in the other, members will wear their usual diapers. Answer these questions about this study: (1) What is the researcher’s hypothesis? (2) How should the researcher split the 100 toddlers into two groups? (3) Which group is the experimental group, and which is the control group? (4) What is the independent variable? (5) What is the dependent variable? (6) What results will the researcher need to make a conclusion about the effectiveness of the new training diaper? (7) Will the researcher be able to conclude that there is a cause-and-effect association? Why or why not? ANSWER: The hypothesis in this study would be that those toddlers who use the new type of training diaper will potty train faster than those using their usual diapers. For the purposes of this study, the researcher should evenly divide the 100 participants between the two groups, randomly assigning participants to each group. In this design, the control group is the group of toddlers who are using their usual diapers and the experimental group is the group of toddlers who are using the new type of training diaper. The independent variable is the training diaper used and the dependent variable is the speed of potty training. In order for the hypothesis to be supported by the data collected, the researcher will need to compare the average time it takes to potty train each group of children. If the experimental group, on average, potty trained at a faster rate than did the control group, then the researcher can say that results support the hypothesis of the study. If this is the case, the researcher can say that the new type of training diaper is effective in potty training but cannot say that it causes faster potty training. There are other confounding variables that could help the toddler potty train faster, such as parent reactions, rewards, and so on.
14. Explain the third-variable problem in the context of correlational research and provide an example to illustrate how it can affect the interpretation of research findings. Additionally, emphasize the importance of recognizing that correlation does not imply causation in research interpretation, even in prestigious research journals. ANSWER: The third-variable problem in correlational research refers to the situation where the observed correlation between two variables may not be a direct cause-and-effect relationship, but could be influenced by a third, unaccounted-for variable. For example, in the context of children’s reading achievement and reading time, the correlation between these two factors could be influenced by a third variable, such as the family’s value for reading. In this case, children who grow up in families that highly value reading may spend more time reading and achieve greater reading proficiency. This emphasizes the importance of understanding that correlation does not imply causation when interpreting research findings. Even in prestigious research journals, findings should be analyzed with caution, as the correlation between two variables does not necessarily mean one causes the other. Researchers must consider the potential influence of third variables and other confounding factors to draw accurate conclusions from their studies.
15. Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of each of these research designs: (a) cross-sectional, (b) longitudinal, and (c) microgenetic. ANSWER: Cross-sectional: One advantage of this design is that it is quick and easy to administer. A disadvantage is that it is uninformative about the stability of individual differences over time. Longitudinal: One advantage of this design is that it reveals individual children’s patterns of change over long periods of time. A disadvantage is that it is difficult to keep all participants in the study. Microgenetic: One advantage of this design is that it reveals individual change patterns over short periods of time in detail. A disadvantage of this design is that it does not yield data regarding change patterns over long periods of time.
16. According to The Society for Research on Child Development, describe what ethical issues researchers must consider when they are conducting research with children. ANSWER: The Society for Research on Child Development has developed a code of ethics for researchers to follow when it comes to conducting research with children. These include being sure that the research maximizes the benefits and minimizes the harm to children, obtaining informed consent prior to collecting data, preserving participants’ anonymity, discussing with caregivers any information from the research that may be important for the welfare of the child, trying to avoid any negative consequences of participating in the research, and debriefing the children once the research is over.
English